Acheulean Handaxe The Oldest Known Formal Human Tool

Acheulean handaxes are large, chipped stone objects which represent the oldest, most common, and longest-used formally-shaped working tool ever made by human beings. Acheulean handaxes are sometimes spelled Acheulian: researchers commonly referred to them as Acheulean bifaces, because the tools were not used as axes, at least not most of the time. Handaxes were first made by our ancient ancestors, members of the hominin family about 1.76 million years ago, as part of the Acheulean tradition toolkit of the Lower Paleolithic (a.k.a. Early Stone Age), and they were used well into the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age) period, about 300,000–200,000. What Makes a Stone Tool a Handaxe? Handaxes are large stone cobbles which have been roughly worked on both sides—what is known as bifacially worked--into a wide variety of shapes. Shapes seen in handaxes are lanceolate (narrow and thin like a laurel leaf), ovate (flatly oval), orbiculate (close to circular), or something in between. Some are pointed, or at least relatively pointy on one end, and some of those pointed ends are quite tapered. Some handaxes are triangular in cross-section, some are flat: in fact, there is considerable variability within the category. Early handaxes, those made before about 450,000 years ago, are simpler and coarser than the later ones, which evidence finer flaking. There are several disagreements in the archaeological literature about handaxes, but the primary one is about their function—what were these tools used for? Most scholars argue the handaxe was a cutting tool, but others suggest it was thrown as a weapon, and still others suggest it might also have played a role in social and/or sexual signaling (my handaxe is larger than his). Most scholars think handaxes were deliberately shaped, but a minority argue that if one resharpens the same rough tool over and over eventually it forms a handaxe. Experimental archaeologists Alastair Key and colleagues compared the angles of the edges on 600 ancient handaxes to 500 others they experimentally reproduced and used. Their evidence suggests that at least some of the edges show wear indicating the long edges of the handaxes were used to cut wood or other material. Acheulean Handaxe Distribution The Acheulean handaxe is named after the Saint Acheul archaeological site in the lower Sommes valley of France where the tools were first discovered n the 1840s. The earliest Acheulean handaxe yet found is from the Kokiselei 4 site in the Rift valley of Kenya, dated about 1.76 million years ago. The earliest handaxe technology outside of Africa was identified at two cave sites in Spain, Solana del Zamborino, and Estrecho del Quipar, dated about 900,000 years ago. Other early examples are from the Konso-Gardula site in Ethiopia, Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, and Sterkfontein in South Africa. Early handaxes have been associated with our hominid ancestor Homo erectus in Africa and Europe. The later ones seem to be associated with both H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis. Several hundred thousand handaxes have been recorded from the Old World, including Africa, Europe, and Asia. Differences Between Lower and Middle Stone Age Axes However, although the handaxe as a tool was in use for over an astounding one and a half million years, the tool did change over that period. There is evidence that, over time, making handaxes became a refined procedure. Early handaxes seem to have been sharpened by reduction of the tip alone, while later ones appear to have been resharpened along their entire length. Whether this is a reflection of the kind of tool that the handaxe had become, or of the increased stone-working capabilities of the makers, or a little of both, is currently unknown. Acheulean handaxes and their associated tool forms are not the first tools ever used. The oldest tool set is known as Oldowan tradition, and they include a large suite of chopping tools which are cruder and simpler tools, thought to have been used by Homo habilis. The earliest evidence of stone tool knapping technology is from the Lomekwi 3 site in West Turkana, Kenya, dated about 3.3 million years ago. In addition, our hominin ancestors may well have created tools from bone and ivory, which have not survived in as nearly as much abundance as stone tools have. Zutovski and Barkai have identified elephant bone versions of handaxes in assemblages from several sites including Konso, dated between 300,000 and 1.4 million years ago. Did Dad Teach Us How to Make Acheulean Handaxes? Archaeologists have always assumed that the ability to make Acheulean handaxes was culturally transmitted—that means taught from generation to generation and tribe to tribe. Some scholars (Corbey and colleagues, Lycett and colleagues) suggest that handaxe forms were not, in fact, solely culturally transmitted, but rather were at least partly genetic artifacts. That is to say, that H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis were at least partly hard-wired to produce the handaxe shape and that the changes seen in the late Acheulean period are the result of a shift from genetic transmission to increasing reliance on cultural learning. That may seem far-fetched at first: but many animals such as birds create species-specific nests or other artifacts that look cultural from the outside but instead are genetic-driven. Sources Corbey, Raymond, et al. The Acheulean Handaxe: More Like a Birds Song Than a Beatles Tune? Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 25.1 (2016): 6-19. Print.Hodgson, Derek. The Symmetry of Acheulean Handaxes and Cognitive Evolution. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015): 204-08. Print.Iovita, Radu, and Shannon P. McPherron. The Handaxe Reloaded: A Morphometric Reassessment of Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic Handaxes. Journal of Human Evolution 61.1 (2011): 61-74. Print.Iovita, Radu, et al. High Handaxe Symmetry at the Beginning of the European Acheulian: The Data from La Noira (France) in Context. PLOS ONE 12.5 (2017): e0177063. Print.Key, Alastair J. M., et al. Looking at Handaxes from Another Angle: Assessing the Ergonomic and Functional Importance of Edge Form in Acheulean Bifaces. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 44, Part A (2016): 43-55. Print.Lepre, Christopher J. , et al. An Earlier Origin for the Acheulian. Nature 477 (2011): 82-85. Print.Lyce tt, Stephen J., et al. Factors Affecting Acheulean Handaxe Variation: Experimental Insights, Microevolutionary Processes, and Macroevolutionary Outcomes. Quaternary International 411, Part B (2016): 386-401. Print.Moore, Mark W., and Yinika Perston. Experimental Insights into the Cognitive Significance of Early Stone Tools. PLoS ONE 11.7 (2016): e0158803. Print.Santonja, Manuel, et al. Ambrona Revisited: The Acheulean Lithic Industry in the Lower Stratigraphic Complex. Quaternary International in press (2017). Print.Shipton, C., and C. Clarkson. Flake Scar Density and Handaxe Reduction Intensity. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 2 (2015): 169-75. Print.White, Mark J., et al. Well-Dated Fluvial Sequences as Templates for Patterns of Handaxe Distribution: Understanding the Record of Acheulean Activity in the Thames and Its Correlatives. Quaternary International (2017). Print.Zutovski, Katia, and Ran Barkai. The Use of Elephant Bones for Making Acheulian Handaxes: A Fresh Loo k at Old Bones. Quaternary International 406, Part B (2016): 227-38. Print.

Management Theories - 1655 Words

Organization and Management Theories Heather Lunn-Howard HCS/514 11/3/2014 Jeani Thomas In this paper I will give an overview of four areas of management theory: Scientific Management, Human relations Theory, Bureaucracy, and administrative science. Along with some background on where each theory came from. Scientific Management Frederick Taylor, with his theories of Scientific Management, helped mold our modern management styles. In the early 1900s, Frederick Taylor pushed for change from the personal management to a new idea of scientific management. Under personal management, a person in charge was chosen simply because they were smart and knew more and possible had more experience than the†¦show more content†¦While Taylors impacts were the establishment of the industrial engineering, quality control and personnel departments, the human relations movement allowed for change in the way management was leading their workers. We still see this as a big part of today’s management styles. Bureaucracy About the same time as the Hawthorne experiments were ongoing, Max Weber was pushing away from value-oriented thinking and action as a result of emotions.. He believed that a society was seeking technology over human emotions and thinking. Weber developed a set of principles for the ideal bureaucracy strictly managing companies by the book. He felt that setting official jurisdictional areas, dictating a firm chain of command, and written policies along with thorough and expert training would make the best environment for any company to work. Weber felt that having these things in place would eliminate the need for management to have to make choices. The choices on how to deal with all situations would be in the written policies. Weber believed this would meet the company’s goals in the most efficient manner possible. 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Aboriginal Inequality Free Essays

string(179) " of Aboriginal students do not speak their native language is because the educational system in Canada fails to recognize and incorporate indigenous knowledge \(Schissel, 2002\)\." Social Inequality with Canadian Aboriginals SOC 300 Dr. Kelly Train Milica Rados 500460778 Different ethnic backgrounds immigrate to Canada making it a very multicultural society. Immigrants coming to Canada have made it progress to a more multicultural society, making other nations believe that this is the case, however this does not include native societies that have been living in Canada for the longest period of time. We will write a custom essay sample on Aboriginal Inequality or any similar topic only for you Order Now The purpose of this paper is to analyze how Aboriginals live in Canada. This paper argues that aboriginals in Canada are not treated with the same equality as non-aboriginals livening in Canada, even though Canada is known as a multicultural society. By studying the history of Aboriginal settlement in Canada and understanding their connection to the land there is a better understanding of why taking over their land is a social issue. By taking over their land their sense of connection to nature was taken away which was a big part of the Aboriginal culture. This caused educational inequality and also the inequality they face within their workplace and the wages they receive. By studying history, their culture, education and their current economic state it becomes more clear why this is a social issue in Canada and how that takes away from the multiculturalism Canada is known for. Aboriginals, which include first nations people, were the first people of Canada however, the treatment they receive today shows otherwise. Aboriginal treaties, Westphalia Treaty of 1648, that were established in Canada in the mid-seventeenth century were used to â€Å"harmonize discovery and conquest principles† (Frideres, 2000). The land that Aboriginals occupied was more than just land to them, they felt a connection with Mother Nature and they established roles in their families that helped them create a working community. Without even trying to understand how Aboriginals felt about their treaties and their land the British Common Law abolished Aboriginal land and tenure (Frideres, 2000). The British came into Canada stronger, with weapons and technology that the Aboriginals did not know about or ever see and when they took over their land they had nothing they could do or say about it. The Aboriginal had no choice but to cooperate and let the land that they felt strong connections to be taken over. Losing a sense of connection to the land and having to watch one of the most important parts of their community being taken over cause further problems for the Aboriginal people. Due to the problems faced with settlement of British into Canada, Aboriginals have not had the same independence they had when they were living in Canada alone, they don’t receive the same equality or freedom. According to symbolic internationalists the identity of a person cannot be determined without understanding the historical context of what the individual is born into. â€Å"Socialization theory† argues that individuals are born into groups and learn their culture and what they learn goes on to the next generations (Frideres, 2008). If a person born into Aboriginal social groups, their understanding of who they are comes from the group they are born into. Their parents teach them about the land and help them develop the same connection to nature that they feel. Aboriginal identity emerges from Aboriginal groups that are shaped by their sense of location (Frideres, 2008). Aboriginals have a strong connection to their land and nature around them and that is what they teach the next generation as stated before. Aboriginal people are the original occupants of the territory known as Canada and as such possess a special relationship to this space (Mills, 2006), and even though this is the case it does not mean that Aboriginals need to own all of Canada and all the land should be considered there. However, the land that they did occupy and did have should be left as is because their connection to the land is important to them. But that is not the case. Aboriginal people are an ethnicity abstracted from their distinct history and relationship to the land and to newcomers (Mills, 2006). They no longer get to own their land but at the same time they have to watch their land being taken over. Over time this sense of group, or community disappears. Generations can no longer teach younger generations about the importance of nature and therefore the history is slowly lost. Since they lost their history and their connection to the land a lot of other parts of their culture and their beliefs was taken away as well. The main issue faced was losing a sense of their culture. Canada being a multicultural society, allows for all people to practice their culture and they have the freedom to believe what they want. The aboriginals lost that right when their land was taken over. It was lost because they no longer owned their nature and it was taken over by technology and architecture, making them less united with the forest and the land that they lived in. By taking over the land they were also forced to have to change their education. In schools they were no longer allowed to learn Aboriginal culture. In 2002 by studying Canadian schools it was said that as many as 30 percent of elementary students and 40 percent of high school students did not speak even a little of their Native tongues (Schissel, 2002). The reason that this is the case can be because Aboriginal families stopped practicing their culture and heritage at home therefore distancing the children from understanding where they came from. That is not because they no longer wanted their kids to know the traditions or history of their ancestry, but it was simply because they lost the connection they had. After being forced to stop practicing aboriginal culture when the British settlement fist happened, they had to learn a new culture and therefore it was slowly lost sine it was forbidden. Therefore the main reason that such high numbers of Aboriginal students do not speak their native language is because the educational system in Canada fails to recognize and incorporate indigenous knowledge (Schissel, 2002). You read "Aboriginal Inequality" in category "Essay examples" Since it would be hard to incorporate all cultures existing in Canada it is acceptable that the language is not practiced in schools. However aboriginals play such an important role in Canadian history their culture should be incorporated in the schools more, especially in history classes involving in Canada. Some may argue that other cultures are not incorporated into the mainstream school system, but aboriginals are the main settlers of Canada and therefore they should be recognized and taught about. Others argue that there are alternative schools that will study traditional cultures. However according to Schisel (2002) this achievement of education would be laughable and would not be considered for a higher level of education such as continuing to university. Therefore they are forced to study the mainstream system if they wish to have a future in the Canada employment wise. Not only did the Aboriginals sacrifice their language and culture, they often also encounter the additional hindrances of racism, prejudice, poverty, violence, and underemployment (Schissel, 2002) Underemployment that Aboriginals face is a serious social issue in Canada. The reason that this can be seen as a serious social issue is because Aboriginal peoples were titled as one of the four economically disadvantaged target groups in Canada in the Employment Equity Act 1995 (Maxim, 2001). This means that the Aboriginals cause overall views of Canada to go down. They can affect the overall economy in Canada because this means they suffer from poverty and unemployment bringing Canada down as a nation. The creation of the Indian in 1985 did not do any help with creating Aboriginals as equals and this party is suffering to this day. Act Registered Aboriginal people in Canada are more likely than any other culture in Canada to be unemployed. They also have a lower education achievement and are considered more likely to be unemployed than anyone else in Canada (White, 2003). It is not just registered aboriginals that are suffering economically it is also the non-registered aboriginals as well. Overall all Aboriginal Canadians are disadvantaged when compared with the non-Aboriginal Canadian population. The amount of disadvantage, is measured by the characteristics of income we are examining, differs for the different categories of Aboriginal peoples (Maxim, 2001). The earnings of Aboriginal people is 10. 4 percent lower than non-aboriginal people in Canada (Maxim, 2001). Thinking about all the different cultures in Canada that number is high compared to the rest of the Canadian citizens. Aboriginal people, mainly concerning women are employed in low paying jobs and also are in less stable jobs (Mills, 2006). There are two main reasons that this is the case according the Mills (2006). The first reason he gives us is that Canadians limit the number of jobs offered for aboriginals. They limit the jobs that they are giving to women for example, therefore resulting in lower paid jobs. The second reason according to Mills (2006) is by putting Canadians in less desirable jobs. This causes a disadvantage for them and it creates segregation. Therefore by limiting their jobs to less desirable jobs they are being treated with inequality and suffer from segregation. The employment rates and unemployment rates suggest that Aboriginals in Canada are way more disadvantage and therefore signifying that Canada is not as multicultural as we believe it to be. In conclusion, it is apparent that Aboriginals are facing sociologically related problems living in Canada. Canada portrays itself as a multicultural society and even though the acceptance of immigrants has progressed a high amount in the years, what is ignored is the aboriginal societies that first settled in Canada. Being the first nations people of Canada the recognition they receive should be much higher. Their history should be brought into schools and the be taught to not only Aboriginals but also other Canadian students because it is an important part of Canadian history. The language should not have been eliminated in the past and just like other cultures they should have received the same treatment being allowed to own their own land, and study their culture. If Aboriginal history was to be taught would create a better sense of acceptance for Aboriginal people and it would help them not forget their culture and their connection to the land. Not only should the history of Aboriginals be taught more, but their acceptance in the work place should be improved. The amount of jobs offered should be higher and the wages they receive should reflect the wages of the rest of Canadians. This would cause Canada to progress into the multicultural society they strive to be. This would cause other cultures to feel more of an acceptance and statistic wise Canada would progress as well. Based on the history of Aboriginals, their culture, the mainstream school system and employment rates; aboriginals are suffering from inequality and it does impact Canada as a society. References Frideres, James S. 2000. Aboriginal Tenure in the Constitution of Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 32. 2:140. Frideres, James S. 2008. Aboriginal Identity in the Canadian Context. The Canadian Journal of Narrative Studies. 28. 2:313-342 Maxim P, White P, Beavon D, Whitehead P. 2001. Dispersion and polarization of income among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Canadians. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 38. 4:465-476. Mills, Suzanne E. 2006. Segregation of Women and Aboriginal People Within Canada’s Forest Sector by Industry and Occupation. The Canadian Journal of Narrative Studies. 26. 1:147-171. Schissel B, Wotherspoon T, Friesen J. 2002. The legacy of school for Aboriginal people: education, oppression, and emancipation. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 34. 2:129-131 Vivian J. 2006. With Good Intentions: Euro-Canadian and Aboriginal Relations in Colonial Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 38. 2:181-183 White J, Maxim P, Gyimah S. 2003. Labour Force Activity of Women in Canada: A Comparative Analysis of Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal Women. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology. 40. 4:391-415. How to cite Aboriginal Inequality, Essay examples